Over-qualification rates by citizenship by country
Countries reporting
45
Highest
36.1%
Türkiye
Lowest
6.8%
Luxembourg
Median
20.4%
Years covered
31
1995–2025
Data points
1,261
What the numbers show
Over-qualification rates by citizenship is currently reported for 45 countries. The highest value is 36.1% in Türkiye; the lowest is 6.8% in Luxembourg.
The median across all reporting countries is 20.4%, and the mean is 20.3%.
The gap between the highest and lowest reporting country is a factor of about 5.
Over the past decade 20 countries rose and 24 fell. The largest increase was in Luxembourg (up 65.9%), and the largest decrease in Switzerland (down 20.0%).
Over-qualification rates by citizenship: full country ranking
| # | Country | Latest | Year | 10-year change | Trend |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|
| 1 | Türkiye | 36.1% | 2025 | up 7.8% | rising |
| 2 | Spain | 33.8% | 2025 | down 8.4% | rising |
| 3 | Greece | 31.2% | 2025 | up 11.0% | rising |
| 4 | Cyprus | 27.4% | 2025 | down 18.2% | flat |
| 5 | Ireland | 27.1% | 2025 | down 7.2% | flat |
| 6 | Austria | 26.0% | 2025 | down 11.3% | rising |
| 7 | United Kingdom | 25.3% | 2019 | up 8.1% | rising |
| 7 | United Kingdom | 25.3% | 2019 | up 8.1% | rising |
| 9 | Estonia | 24.4% | 2025 | down 6.9% | falling |
| 9 | Estonia | 24.4% | 2025 | down 6.9% | falling |
| 11 | Serbia | 22.3% | 2025 | down 8.2% | rising |
| 12 | Lithuania | 21.5% | 2025 | down 6.5% | falling |
| 12 | Lithuania | 21.5% | 2025 | down 6.5% | falling |
| 14 | Malta | 21.3% | 2025 | up 55.5% | rising |
| 15 | Slovakia | 20.9% | 2025 | down 1.4% | rising |
| 15 | Slovakia | 20.9% | 2025 | down 1.4% | rising |
| 17 | Latvia | 20.7% | 2025 | up 7.3% | rising |
| 17 | Bulgaria | 20.7% | 2025 | down 11.5% | rising |
| 17 | Latvia | 20.7% | 2025 | up 7.3% | rising |
| 20 | Italy | 20.6% | 2025 | up 7.9% | rising |
| 21 | France | 20.4% | 2025 | down 7.3% | rising |
| 21 | Germany | 20.4% | 2025 | up 10.3% | falling |
| 21 | Bosnia and Herzegovina | 20.4% | 2025 | — | falling |
| 24 | North Macedonia | 20.3% | 2025 | down 19.1% | rising |
| 25 | Poland | 20.0% | 2025 | up 5.3% | rising |
| 25 | Poland | 20.0% | 2025 | up 5.3% | rising |
| 27 | Slovenia | 19.9% | 2025 | up 30.9% | rising |
| 27 | Slovenia | 19.9% | 2025 | up 30.9% | rising |
| 29 | Belgium | 19.8% | 2025 | up 2.6% | falling |
| 30 | Norway | 18.3% | 2025 | up 18.8% | flat |
| 30 | Iceland | 18.3% | 2025 | up 43.0% | rising |
| 32 | Montenegro | 18.1% | 2020 | down 4.7% | falling |
| 33 | Switzerland | 17.2% | 2025 | down 20.0% | falling |
| 34 | Finland | 16.9% | 2025 | down 11.5% | flat |
| 35 | Denmark | 16.3% | 2025 | up 12.4% | rising |
| 36 | Portugal | 16.1% | 2025 | up 23.8% | rising |
| 37 | Romania | 15.6% | 2025 | down 16.6% | rising |
| 38 | Sweden | 14.9% | 2025 | down 9.1% | rising |
| 39 | Hungary | 14.3% | 2025 | up 1.4% | rising |
| 40 | Netherlands | 14.1% | 2025 | down 14.5% | rising |
| 40 | Netherlands | 14.1% | 2025 | down 14.5% | rising |
| 42 | Croatia | 13.1% | 2025 | down 12.1% | rising |
| 42 | Czechia | 13.1% | 2025 | down 3.0% | rising |
| 42 | Croatia | 13.1% | 2025 | down 12.1% | rising |
| 45 | Luxembourg | 6.8% | 2025 | up 65.9% | flat |
Regions and income groups
Aggregates are excluded from the country ranking above so that a region can never outrank a country.